| Dr. Nancy Snow
How to
Become a Persuasive Person
Why
Persuasion?
While much
is known about processes of social influence, the scientific
study of persuasion is in its infancy;
Persuasion
isn’t evil! It is an essential, indispensable feature of human
interaction.
Persuasion
Defined
“One or
more persons who are engaged in the activity of creating,
reinforcing, modifying, or extinguishing beliefs, attitudes,
intentions, motivations, and/or behaviors, within the
constraints of a given communication context.” (Seiter & Gass,
2003);
Not all
human behavior is persuasive, although nearly all human behavior
carries persuasive potential.
Interpersonal Primacy
Persuasion
is found in interpersonal encounters, where influence attempts
are most prevalent and have their greatest
impact.
Why
Interpersonal?
Most
communication scholars are in agreement that your best
opportunity for an influence attempt is an interpersonal
form of communication;
In interpersonal encounters, we are less aware of individual
motives. That’s why if you are trying to negotiate something,
it’s considered more effective to use a face-to-face approach
rather than an impersonal message.
Manipulation: Common criticism of persuasion
Critique:
Studying persuasion is teaching manipulation, in that persuasion
research focuses on the means of influence, which tend to
be amoral, rather than moral or immoral;
Response:
Persuasion can be likened to a hammer. The hammer isn’t good or
bad. It is a tool. How you use the tool, for good or bad, to
what end or purpose, is what should be judged.
Why
motives are important
A
persuader’s motives, more than the persuasive means, determine
how ethical or unethical a given influence attempt is;
The
debunking function of persuasion is important to understanding
motives involved and both scrupulous and unscrupulous influence
attempts.
Persuasion & Propaganda
Propaganda
and indoctrination have a pejorative meaning, and are usually
used to refer to persuasion used by the opposition;
Example: I tell the truth, you use propaganda.
4 basic
characteristics of propaganda
(1)
Propaganda has a strong ideological bent; it does not serve just
an informational function; it’s the converse of “just the facts,
ma’am.”
(2)
Propaganda is institutional in nature; it is associated more
with agencies and organizations that sponsor content rather
than individuals;
(3) Propaganda involves mass
persuasion; the water cooler gossip does not apply here.
(4) Propagandists tend to put
results first, ethics second. This gives the study of
propaganda its negative taint.
Cultural
Context: Key to Persuasion
The role
of cultural context must be considered in any definition or
model of persuasion.
Cultural
context may determine nature of persuasion process (delayed,
two-way, linear, etc.)
Cultural
context focuses on the communication process, not a product
outcome
·
Requires
mutual understanding and cultural sensitivity
Communicator Characteristics & Persuasion
First,
describe yourself in 10 words.
·
How much
of who you are determines your persuasive abilities?
·
Who am I
that others are interested in me?
·
Who do
others think I am?
·
What
associations are others in that connect with me?
Gender &
Persuasion
Males tend
to be more persuasive than females BUT not because of males’
ability or skill;
Gender
stereotypes cause audiences to perceive males as more competent
than females and to expect females to be warmer and more
nurturing than males.
Women &
Persuasion
Women
experience a DOUBLE BIND: they must not only perform
better than men to be considered equally competent, they are
also perceived negatively when they try to be direct, assertive,
and forceful;
Men who
are direct, assertive and forceful are congratulated for their
persuasive abilities
Myths
about men and women & persuasion
Early
research indicated that women were more persuadable than men,
but later studies find no such differences. Why?
1. Women
may be more empowered today than they were when previous studies
were conducted.
2.
Cross-sex effect may be happening; in some cases, people are
more persuaded by members of the opposite sex than by members of
the same sex.
3. Men and
women may differ in terms of their goals, plans, beliefs, and
resources, and these, in turn, may lead to gender differences in
persuasion.
Ethnicity,
Culture and Persuasion
Individualistic cultures (U.S.,
Europe) are more persuaded by appeals to independence, personal
benefit; Collectivistic cultures (Asia, Arab) are more persuaded
by appeals to harmony, group goals and concern for others; When
seeking compliance, cultures also differ with regard to
directness, concern for saving face, emphasizing trust, and
empowerment; When being
persuaded, we may pay more attention to speakers from another
culture than our own;
Be careful
here; do not generalize or stereotype individuals; these are
general tendencies that do not hold for all.
Credibility
Charisma,
ethos, credibility used interchangeably
Credibility defined: “judgments made by a perceiver concerning
the believability of a communicator” (O’Keefe, 1990)
·
Involves
evaluation (values) and trust, honesty perception
Credibility constructs
Receiver-based phenomenon (it exists in the eyes of the
beholder); Multidimensional construct; it’s not just one thing but a
combination of factors;
Situational or contextually-based (Communicator credibility
varies from one situation to the next);
Dynamic;
it can change over time (improve/decline) and even during a
single persuasive message
Dimensions of Credibility
Primary
dimensions:
-
Expertise (competence/qualification); usually plays the most
important role
-
Trustworthiness (character)
-
Goodwill
(perceived caring)
Secondary
dimensions:
-
Dynamism
(extroversion)
-
Composure
-
Sociability
-
Inspiration
Credibility & Cues
Receivers
with low involvement or interest in the issue are more likely to
rely on credibility as a heuristic cue;
Receivers
with high involvement (vested interest) are less likely to rely
on credibility and more likely to scrutinize message content.
10
guidelines to enhance one’s credibility
(1)
Be
well-prepared and organized
(2)
Cite
evidence in your position; cite sources for the evidence
(3)
Explain
your background and qualifications to listeners
(4)
Establish
trustworthiness by demonstrating that you have your listeners’
interests at heart
(5)
Display goodwill (caring) toward your audience
(6)
Adopt a language style suitable to your audience and the
occasion
(7)
Avoid powerless styles of communication such as “ums”
and “ahs” or tag questions, qualifiers and hesitations
(8)
Create identification by emphasizing your similarities
with your listeners
(9)
Increase receiver involvement in order to counter
perceptions of low credibility
(10)
Secure the endorsement of a high credibility source, a
strategy known as relying on “coattails”
Persons of
Influence
Write down
the names of the three most charismatic, living persons you can
think of…these are the people who command respect and they’re
the kind of individuals we look up to and follow.
1.
2.
3.
Persuasion
& Democracy
“On the
one hand, we, as a society, value persuasion; our government is
based on the belief that free speech and discussion and exchange
of ideas can lead to fairer and better decision making. On the
other hand, as cognitive misers we often do not participate
fully in this discussion, relying instead not on careful thought
and scrutiny of a message, but on simplistic persuasion devices
and limited reasoning. Mindless propaganda, not thoughtful
persuasion, flourishes.” (Pratkanis & Aronson, 1992)
The
Antidote to the Dilemma of Democracy
Increase
education on power of mass media and propaganda to route our
thinking through the peripheral (mindless, haphazard) route;
increase media literacy
Emphasize
more central processing of information whereby people engage in
dialogue and ideas exchange at thoughtful, deliberate levels of
communication
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